Note to instructor: The course is designed to accommodate the vast majority of underwater photography equipment, ranging from snapshot cameras to housed professional equipment. If students will supply their own equipment, recommend to students with a serious interest in photography and UW photography that they use an underwater system with manually adjustable focus, aperture, shutter speed and a TTL strobe. Depending on student knowledge level, you may find it appropriate to briefly display and discuss equipment types, and advantages and disadvantages.

Ask questions and pay attention to student reactions and interest when presenting the course presentations. Some students may already be experienced with photography, and others not. Also, many students will learn the basics quickly through their independent study. Be flexible with your presentation by moving quickly through material all your students know well, but take time to adapt topics to their individual needs, and present more slowly and with detail material they have not yet learned. The idea is to avoid unnecessarily boring your class, but to ensure that students understand the material and have the opportunity to ask questions.

d. Schedule and attendance. [Cover and review points about scheduling and attendance.] An Introduction to Photography and the Underwater World Learning objectives. After this discussion, you'll be able to answer the following questions: What are the five essential components of a camera, and what does each component do? • What five challenges does the underwater environment create for the underwater photographer that the surface photographer doesn't face? • What environmental concern does the underwater environment present the photographer? Photography's the process of recording an image by exposing a sensitive material - either film or a computer chip - to light. a. A photographer controls the quantity and quality of light to achieve a pleasing picture. b. the amount of light available, the relative sensitivity of the film or computer chip and the subject being photographed all affect how the photographer manipulates the light quantity and quality.

2. A camera is an instrument that the photographer uses to control the quantity and quality of light reaching film or a computer chip. It is a light-tight box that keeps the film or chip in the dark until the photographer records the picture. a. Film cameras record images on light sensitive chemicals on a strip of plastic. The images are developed into pictures through chemical processes. Digital cameras record images using light sensitive computer chips, which store the image in computer memory. Images are developed into pictures through computer processing. b. Some cameras automatically control the quantity and/or quality of light for the photographer. Some have no automatic control. The most popular cameras for serious photography offer both (we'll get into specifics later).

the lens - precision ground glass/plastic optic that controls light by focusing it (quality) on the film or chip for a sharp image b. the aperture - an adjustable sized hole in or behind the lens through which light passes into the camera     the shutter - a door or mechanism that opens and closes to control for how long light passes into the camera d. transport system - in film camera: keeps film flat, correct distance from lens, measures film for each shot and counts pictures; in digital camera: electronic processing that sends recorded image to memory, counts picture and clears chip to receive next picture

e. viewfinder - a mechanism for aiming the camera at the desired subject

The underwater environment presents five challenges that affect photography. Water affects the quantity of light available. - Water reflects light off its surface and absorbs light passing through it. b. Water affects the quality of light available. - The apparent distance of an object underwater is closer than actual for cameras just as the human eye, which affects focus. Light passing through water loses colors the farther it travels - first red, then orange, yellow, green - so that the remaining light is primarily blue. Particles in water scatter light, making images less sharp the farther the subject is from the camera.

c. Water easily damages photo equipment. - Surface cameras must be kept protected and dry in a properly sealed housing; amphibious cameras and strobes must be properly sealed. One drop of water inside a camera can destroy it. Additionally, water corrodes metal and leaves salt deposits, so underwater photography equipment requires meticulous maintenance. In tropical climates, humidity can be a factor if water condenses inside a system when immersed in cool water.

d. Water exerts pressure. - Camera housings, amphibious cameras and strobes must be more than water resistant, but pressure resistant or the pressure will crush them. (Some water resistant cameras may be suitable for snorkeling, but aren't intended for scuba depths).

e. Water affects the photographer. - An underwater camera system creates additional drag when swimming;buoyancy and water motion can make it hard for the photographer to hold the camera steady for a sharp picture.

5. The underwater world presents a unique environmental concern. This is that improper photo technique can damage sensitive aquatic life. It's important to avoid inadvertently bumping, damaging or kicking sensitive organisms while trying to take a pictures. It's also important to not harass or disturb organisms for the sake of a picture.

6. Based on all these points, you'll be lean-Ling underwater photography in the following steps:

a. First, you'll learn basic photography principles, including how to use a camera to control the quality and quantity of light, the different types of cameras available, principles of electronic strobe photography and the types of strobes available.

b. Second, you'll learn how water affects these principles, and what to do to get good underwater photos. This will include a look at underwater cameras, housings,

strobes and other underwater photo equipment options. c. Once you understand how to photograph an acceptable image, you'll learn about composition - the art of making the image pleasing to look at.

d. Next, you'll learn about the unique considerations of safe, environmentally responsible diving with a camera,

>and then how to set up and maintain an underwater camera system.

e. You'll practice these basics in Underwater Photography Dive One.

f.Before Underwater Photography Dive Two, you'll gain more indepth knowledge about what you've already learned, including selecting film, and specific techniques for different underwater picture taking situations. During Underwater Photography Dive Two, you'll practice taking photos based on one of these techniques.

E.Photography Basics - Exposure

Learning objectives. After this discussion, you'll be able to answer the following questions:

• What are meant by exposure and latitude? • What four variables influence exposure?

• What are meant by F. m speed and ISO? • How does a digital camera apply ISO

• What is meant by available light? • What is an 'f-stop

• In what increments do you find shutter speeds?

• How do you use a manual light meter to determine the exposure for a given amount of light and a given ISO?

• What is meant by bracketing You'll also be able to:

• Given an ISO number, determine the ISO number for a film that's twice as sensitive, and a film that's half as sensitive.

• Given an aperture, determine the aperture that lets in twice as much light and the one that lets in half as much light.

• Given a shutter speed, determine the shutter speed that lets in light for twice as long, and the one that lets in light for half as long.

• Given an exposure aperture and a shutter speed, determine the new aperture if given a new shutter speed, or the new shutter speed if given a new aperture, to maintain the same exposure.

• Given an ISO and an exposure aperture and shutter speed, determine a new combination of aperture and shutter speed for a given new ISO.

• Set a camera to obtain the proper exposure.

Note: Film also has a size reference. The most popular film size is 35 mm (hence "35 mm" camera). The measurement refers to the film width.

c. Aperture - The lens opening allows you to control how much light comes into the camera.

1. Different aperture sizes are represented by standardized numbers called f-stops, which are derived from the relationship between the lens angle of view and the opening size. This is done so that an f-stop of a given number passes the same amount of light no matter what lens you're using.

2.    F-stops are numbered in the range 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8,11,16, 22, 32, with different lenses differing in the highest and lowest number.

3. The smaller the f-stop number, the more light the lens admits (wider the opening).

4. A given f-stop passes twice as much light as the number above it, and half as much as the number below it. For example, f4 admits twice as much light as f5.6, and half as much as f2.8.

d. Shutter speed - How long you let light strike the film or chip.

1. Shutter speeds are represented by standardized numbers of what fraction of a second the shutter remains open.

2.    Shutter speeds of 1/30th, 1/60th, 1/125th, 1 /250th, 1 /500th and 1 / 1000th of a second are the most commonly used, though many cameras have slower shutter speeds and faster shutter speeds. Most cameras omit the top of the fraction, so that, for example, 1/250th of a second reads "250."

3. Each shutter speed lets light strike the film or chip for twice as long as the next faster speed, and half as long as the next slower speed. For example, 125 lets light in for twice as long as 250, and half as long as 60.

3. Finding the proper exposure for the available light - accomplished with a light meter, usually within the camera. Let's assume the camera is completely manual using the following steps:

a. Set the film ISO number so the camera light meter knows how sensitive the film is. Some cameras don't need the ISO set because they either read the ISO auto-

matically off the film cartridge when loaded, or they only accept a specific ISO film. Digital cameras "know" their ISO and don't need this set.

b. Set the desired shutter speed (more about speed selection shortly) and point the camera at the subject. The camera light meter tells you the required f-stop. Alternatively, you can set the desired f-stop, and the meter will tell you the required shutter speed.

c.     Therefore, for a given ISO and amount of available light, a light meter gives you the combinations of shutter speed and f-stop. Once you know the exposure for a given available light situation, if shutter speed, f-stop or ISO change, you can determine the new shutter speed, f-stop, ISO combination based on what you just learned about f-stops shutter speeds, and ISO.

Example: With ISO 100, the light meter shows that for a shutter speed of 125, you need f5.6. What f-stop would you use for shutter speed of 60? Answer: f8. Shutter speed 60 lets light hit the film/chip for twice as long, so you need to let in half as much light through the aperture. f8 is the next f-stop above f5.6, which lets in half as much light.

Example: With ISO 100, the light meter shows that for f­stop f 11, you require shutter speed of 125. What shutter speed would you use with f22? Answer: 30. f22 is two f­stops above f11 and lets in 1 /4th the amount of light as f11. To compensate, you need to let the light in for four times as long by using a shutter speed two speeds lower.

Example: With ISO 100, the light meter shows a combination of f-stop 8 and shutter speed 125. If you switch to ISO 200, what would the new f-stop be if you still use shutter speed 125? Answer: f11. ISO 200 is twice as sensitive as ISO 100 and only needs half as much light. F-11 is the next stop above f8 and lets in half as much light.

Summary: For a given ISO and amount of available light, for each f-stop you close the aperture, you need to slow the shutter speed to the next speed. For each f-stop you open the aperture, you need to raise the shutter speed to the next speed. For each shutter speed you raise the speed, you need to open the aperture one f-stop, and vice-versa. If you change ISO the shutter/f-stop combinations change.

4. Setting your camera for proper exposure.

Note to instructor: As you discuss the following points, help students set their cameras properly. Take the time to show them what the camera is doing. Time invested here will make the rest of the course smoother.

a.     First, set the ISO on the ISO dial or indicator (if appropriate.)

b. Most modern cameras will automatically adjust exposure, by matching the required aperture to the shutter speed you set, or the required shutter speed to the f­stop you set, or by setting both f-stop and shutter speed according to a program.

1. Many cameras read out what the camera is setting for, in case you want to override and set the camera manually (more about this later).

2. Manual cameras have indicators that tell you when you've set the correct shutter speeds and aperture. [Be sure students understand how to set their cameras.]

3. Some snapshot cameras set everything and only indicate "low light" when outside the camera's range. c. Whether using manual or automatic cameras, for a given ISO and available light, you will get approximately the same exposure.

5. Bracketing is used to ensure that you get an acceptable exposure, especially in difficult lighting conditions. Bracketing is the practice of taking the same picture with different exposures above and below the metered exposure, usually by varying the f-stop. The number of bracket exposures and the amount of variation depends upon the importance of the picture, and your experience with the lighting conditions and the type film. More about bracketing later.

Note to instructor: Ensure that all students know how to bracket. A few cameras cannot bracket. Break from the presentation to give students time to play with their cameras and setting exposure. Be on hand to answer questions. Take the time to assure that students understand the basic concepts discussed, and how to apply them to the cameras they'll be using in the course.

F.    Photography Basics - Focus and Perspective

Learning objectives. After this discussion, you'll be able to answer the following questions:

• What is meant by "focus"?

• What is meant by 'focal length"?

• What are meant by "wide angle," "normal" and "telephoto" lens? • What is meant by "perspective"?

• What is "depth of field"?

• What is "macro photography," and what characteristics does it have with respect to focus?

You'll also be able to:

• Given two f-stops, identify which one gives the most depth of field. • Given two lens focal lengths, identify which one gives the most depth of field.

• Explain the general uses for wide angle, and telephoto lenses. • Focus your camera.

1. Focus - Light gathered by the camera lens must be focused properly to record a sharp image (quality of light). Focus is the process of bending light so that the rays meet at the

same point on the film or chip; this makes the picture sharp. The type of lens and the aperture affect the process of focusing. An unfocused picture is blurred.

2. Focal length - the distance from the center of the lens to the film or chip, usually measured in millimeters (nun). Changes in the focal length change the apparent distance from the subject.

Note: It's recommended that you have an SLR camera with different lens so students can look through them and see the differences.

a. A lens with an apparent subject-to-camera distance that is about the same as you see it is called a normal lens. The focal length that is "normal" varies with the film or chip size. For 35mm film cameras, a normal lens is an approximately 50n-Lm focal length lens. For 120mm film cameras, a normal lens is approximately 85mm.

Note to instructor: There's sometimes confusion between focal length and film size because both use mm. Be sure student understand the difference between a 35 mm film camera and the focal length of a lens on a camera.

b. A lens with an apparent subject-to-camera distance that's greater than what your eye sees is called a wide angle lens. A wide angle lens has a shorter focal length than a normal lens; the shorter the focal length, the wider the view. Wide angle lens are sometimes called "short lenses." For 35mm cameras, a 35 mm lens is moderately wide, a 24mm lens is wide, and a 20mm or 15mm is very wide. A wide angle lens that sees approximately 180 degrees diagonally and bends the picture sides is a fisheye lens.

c. A lens with an apparent subject-to-camera distance that's shorter than what your eye sees is called a telephoto lens. Telephoto lenses have longer focal lengths than a normal lens (sometimes called "long lenses.") For 35mm cameras, an 80 to 100nun is slightly telephoto, 135mm is moderately telephoto and 200 mm and up is strongly telephoto.

d. A zoom lens is a lens that can change focal length. The most popular zoom lenses range from moderately wide angle to moderately telephoto, or from slightly to strongly telephoto.

3. Perspective - The point of view as seen through the camera. You use different focal length lenses to change the camera's view of a scene from a given point compared to the normal lens.

a. Wide angle lens - Pushes the subject away visually; used to see more area at a dose distance - lets you get closer to the subject and still have it in the frame (important in underwater photography - more about this later)

1. Objects close to camera look disproportionately large; objects far from camera look disproportionately small. This is called perspective distortion.

2. Stretches depth - space between an object dose to camera and one far away appears longer than actual.

3. Has a wide depth of field - important in underwater photography - more about depth of field shortly 4. Useful for landscapes, room interiors and general snapshot photography. Most non interchangeable lens cameras have a moderately wide angle lens.

b. Telephoto lens - Pulls subject in visually; used to see a smaller area more closely.

1. Objects far from camera look disproportionately large.

2. Compresses depth - space between an object dose to camera and one far away appears shorter than actual.

3. Useful for portraits, nature photography and picking out detail at a distance.

4. Depth of field (aka "depth of focus") - the range of acceptable focus from its closest to its farthest point from the camera. Several variables affect depth of field.

a. Aperture - the smaller the aperture, the more depth of field. For example, if you focus on something at f8, switching to f11 will make more on the dose and far

side of the subject in focus (or in better focus). f5.6 will reduce the objects in focus.

b. Focal length - For a given focus distance, the shorter the focal length, the more depth of field. A 24mm lens will have more depth of field than an 80 mm lens, for example.

c.      Focus distance - The closer the subject to camera for a given focal length and aperture, the narrower the depth of field.

Note to instructor: Although film/chip size affects whether a given focal length is a wide angle, normal or telephoto, the depth of field characteristics are not affected by film/chip size. For example, an 85mm lens has the same depth of field for a given focus point and aperture whether it is on a 35mm camera (telephoto) or a 120mm camera (normal). You may wish to raise this point if asked by students who are comparing characteristics of different format cameras.

5. Some kinds of photography, such as macro photography, have special focus considerations that we'll talk about later. 6. How to focus your camera. [As you discuss this, show students the focusing procedures and depth of field markings, etc. for their cameras.]

a. SLR viewing - "SLR" stands for Single Lens Reflex, which means the viewfinder allows you to see through the same lens that takes the picture - turn focus ring until the picture is sharp. Depth of field markings are on lens, showing range of focus; many SLRs let you dose lens to set aperture so you can see depth of field. (Some higher quality digital cameras have a view screen of the camera image; this is SLR viewing for practical purposes).

b. Range finder - look through viewfinder over lens and adjust lens until double image in marked square becomes a single image - not as common in new cameras. Depth field marking usually on lens if present.

c.    Nikonos - estimate distance to subject and set on lens. Depth of field indicators on lens face.

d. Auto focus - camera automatically focuses for object in marked area of viewfinder. Higher end auto focus cameras have manual override; many have a focus lock that allows you to first autofocus, then lock the focus to reframe the picture the way you want.

e. Focus free - camera uses wide angle lens and is preset so everything from about one metre/three feet to infinity is in focus - most common in snapshot cameras

f.     Framer - a wand or frame that reaches from the camera to the subject at exactly the focus distance - used primarily in macro (extreme close-up) photography (more about this later).

Note to instructor: Break from the presentation to give students time to play with their cameras and setting exposure. Be on hand to answer questions. Take the time to assure that students understand the basic concepts discussed, and how to apply them to the cameras they'll be using in the course.

F.      Photography Basics - Controlling Motion

Learning objectives. After this discussion, you'll be able to answer the following questions:

• What are two types of motion that can make pictures blurred?

• As a rule of thumb, what is the slowest shutter speed that you can hand-hold a camera and still get a reasonable sharp picture?

• How does lens focal length affect your ability to hand-hold a camera?

1. Motion - Besides proper focus, a sharp picture requires a fast enough shutter speed to stop motion that would otherwise blur the picture.

2. Two types of motion can blur the photo.

b. Use a flash (virtually all are daylight balanced). More about flash use shortly.

Summary: Available light photography consists of balancing the variables of light quantity available, film/chip speed, shutter speed and lens opening, with the needs of depth of focus, stopping action, and color.

H.    Photo Basics - Camera types

Learning objectives. After this discussion, you'll be able to answer the following questions:

• What is meant by an "automatic" camera? • What is meant by a "manual" camera?

• What is meant by aperture priority, shutter priority and programmed automatic exposure?

• What are the differences between manual focus, auto focus, and focus free cameras?

In addition, you'll be able to

• Set the camera you'll be using in this course for automatic exposure and/or focus, if it has those capabilities.

1. Automatic and manual cameras.

a. An "automatic" camera is a camera that will set the exposure for the photographer based on the film/chip ISO and the light available. Virtually all cameras available today are automatic.

b. A "manual" camera requires you to set the exposure; the camera makes no automatic adjustments. Most manual cameras have a light meter that guide you. Few cameras presently available are manual cameras. [Note: This is because most of the better automatic cameras may be set to operate manually.]

2. Automatic exposure falls into three broad categories based on how it adjusts exposure.

a.     "Aperture priority" means you choose the aperture, and the camera sets the shutter speed based on the light and ISO. ("Priority" is to the aperture because you choose it"

b. "Shutter priority" means you choose the shutter speed and the camera sets the aperture based on the light and ISO.

c. "Programmed" means the camera sets both the shutter speed and the aperture. Basic programmed automatic covers general picture taking; some cameras have spe­-

cific programs for action photography, portrait, etc. 3. Focus may also be automated, as you've already learned. a.   "Manual focus" means you set the focus for a sharp picture.

b. "Autofocus" means the camera focuses for you, usually with an indicator that tells you what the camera will focus on. Better quality autofocus cameras can also be set on manual focus.

c.    "Focus free" means the camera uses a wide angle lens with an aperture such that the depth of field ranges from approximately two metres/seven feet to infinity, making focus unnecessary. Focus free is usually found on snapshot cameras.

4. Setting an automatic camera.

Note to instructor: Ensure that all students understand what type of camera they have, and how to set the camera on automatic. (This varies greatly with each model, and you may need to take some time to with an unfamiliar model.) When possible, have various types available to show. Be sure students know how to set their camera on automatic exposure and/ or focus, and how to set it on manual (assuming their camera has these settings). Take the time required to make students comfortable with setting their cameras before continuing.

I.     Photo Basics - Strobe Photography

Learning objectives. After this discussion, you'll be able to answer the following questions:

• What are the differences between a manual and a TTL automatic strobe?

• Why do you need a camera that's specifically dedicated to the TTL automatic strobe you're using?

• What is meant by "synchronization" with respect to strobe photography?

You will also be able to:

• Set the camera and strobe you will be using in this course for strobe photography.

• Explain how to set a camera for manual strobe exposure.hh

• Explain how to generally set a camera for TTL strobe exposure.

1. A strobe - an electronic flash - is used when you don't have enough light for a picture. It is also used underwater, even when you have ample light, to restore colors (more about this later).

a. Manual strobes require you to set the camera manually for a proper exposure, (even automatic cameras).

b. TTL automatic strobes provide automatic exposure - the camera controls the strobe via an internal sensor (TTL stands for "Through The Lens").

1. To use a TTL strobe, you must have a camera that is designed to be compatible with the strobe's electronics.

2.    Most TTL strobes can be set for manual use with cameras that lack TTL compatibility.

3. Most TTL strobes can be set on manual even when used on cameras with TTL compatibility.

c.     Cameras with built in strobes may or may not be TTL strobes, but once set for flash, exposure is usually automatic (consult manufacturer instructions).

d. In basic surface photography, the flash is usually mounted on the camera in a "hot shoe" (so named because it has the electronic connections with the strobe) or (for large strobes) on a bracket next to the camera connected by a cord.

2. Setting the proper exposure for manual strobe photography. Shutter speed -- Electronic flash is an instant light burst, so stopping action isn't an issue. However, the shutter and flash must be synchronized . Synchronization is timing between the camera and the flash so that the shutter is open when the strobe flashes.

b. Set the shutter speed for the flash synchronization speed for the camera (usually 60, 90 or 125 - often colored different or has a "lightening bolt" icon to signify flash, or consult manufacturer instructions). With most cameras, speeds slower than this speed will be synchronized.

c.    A few cameras (mostly larger format or older models) have an "FP" or "X" setting. The camera must be set on "X." (FP is for flashbulbs).

d.      The f-stop is set based on a scale on the strobe. Find the subject distance and read the appropriate f-stop opposite on the scale.

e.     The exposure is based on the flash-to-subject distance. If the camera and flash are different distances from the subject, the camera distance may be ignored.

3. A TTL automatic strobe will control the flash exposure automatically. Some will set the camera to the proper synchronization speed automatically, too.

a. The strobe/camera vary the flash output based on ISO, distance and f-stop.

b. Using smaller f-stops and slower films reduces the maximum distance over which you can use the strobe - see the manufacturer guidelines.

c. The strobe usually has a guide showing the range for the ISO and f-stop; be sure your subject is within the range.

Note to instructor: You may occasionally have students who have older model strobes with an external sensor for automation based on a preset f-stop. These aren't covered because they're not used widely underwater, but you may want to show students with such models how to s--t their strobes.

Make sure all students know how to use the strobe/cameras they will be using for this course. This ends the section on basic surface photography; you may wish to review and discuss what has been learned ~o assure students grasp the fundamentals.

V Presentation 2

A.      Underwater Photography Principles - How Water Affects Light

Learning objectives. After this discussion, you'll be able to answer the following questions:

• What is "refraction?"

• How does refraction through water, glass and air affect the apparent distance of an underwater subject?

• At what distance do you set your focus when taking underwater pictures?

• What are four causes light loss underwater, and six ways to offset these?

• For photographic purposes, approximately what distance in water does light have to travel through to lose the colors red, orange, yellow and green, respectively?

• What are four ways you can offset color loss underwater?

• Why do photographers usually use a strobe underwater, even during the day?

• What is "scatter," and how does it affect underwater photos?

• What is the rule of thumb for the maximum distance you should be from your subject when taking underwater photos?

• What is the generally the best type lens to use underwater, and what are four benefits of using it?

• How does a dome port affect lens angle and focus, and why is it used for many types of underwater photography?

1. When light goes from passing through one medium into another, such as from air into water, it bends. This bending of light is called "refraction."

a. When light passes through water, then glass and air, as it does when you're looking through a dive mask, it makes objects appear larger/closer.

b.    This is as true for a camera as it is for your eye.

c. Therefore, when focusing a camera underwater, the fo­cus is based on the apparent (optical) distance, not the actual (measured) distance.

1. SLRs allow you to see through the camera lens; fo­cus until the image appears sharp.

2. Autofocus cameras will focus on the apparent dis­tance.

3. With cameras such as the Nikonos that require set­ting the estimated distance, set the apparent dis­tance as your eye sees it; don't compensate by esti­mating the actual distance.

2. Available light diminishes as you descend underwater through four causes:

a. Diffusion - overcast conditions, fog, haze or smoke can diminish sunlight before it ever reaches the water

b. Reflection - much of the light striking the surface at an angle reflects off the water; the lower the sun is in the sky (early morning or late afternoon), the more is lost through reflection

c. Absorption - water absorbs light passing through it, turning it into heat

d. Scattering - particles in the water block, absorb and re­flect light.

3. There are six ways to cope with light loss underwater, which can help independently, or combined:

a. Assure there's plenty of light by shooting when the sun is out and the sky is clear.

b. Stay shallow to reduce the amount of water the light must travel through to reach it.

c.  Minimize light lost to reflection by taking pictures be­tween approximately 10 am and 2 pm when the sun is overhead.

d. Most underwater photography employs a strobe and available light together. (Discussed shortly) However, the strobe can provide most or all the light when neces­sary.

e. Use films with higher LSO numbers that require less light.

f.   Get close to your subject to reduce the amount of water the light must travel through reflecting off of it.

4. Water absorbs light traveling through it progressively, tak­ing out the lower energy colors before the higher energy colors. In clear water, the distance light must travel to ab­sorb color (for photographic purposes) is approximately: Red - 3 metres/10 feet

Orange - 5 metres/15 feet

Yellow -10 metres/33 feet Green - 24 metres/80 feet

5. There are four primary methods of compensating for color loss underwater.

a. Stay in shallow water to minimize the color loss due to depth.

b.  Use a strobe to replace the lost colors.

c.     Stay close to your subject to minimize the color loss due distance from the subject.

d. Use a filter to restore the color balance (but it cannot re­place lost color)

6. Light traveling through water strikes particles, which de­flects rays off a straight course. This is called scatter, which reduces image sharpness. The farther you are from your subject, and the more particles in the water, the more scat­ter degrades the image. You reduce scatter by staying dose to the subject.

7.    As a rule of thumb, because of scatter and color loss, try not to be farther from your subject than the lesser of 1/4 the visibility or 1.2 metres/4 feet (there are exceptions to this).

8. Usea wide angle lens to stay within 1/4 the visibility-1.2 metres/4 feet. As you learned earlier, wide angle lenses make the subject seem farther away, allowing you to get closer and minimize the distance light travels from the sub­ject to the camera. The wide angle lens is the ideal lens for underwater photography because:

a. Short light travel distance reduces scatter. b. Short light travel distance improves color. c. Wide angle lenses have great depth of field, making fo­cus easier.

d. Wide angle lenses tolerate more camera motion without blurring the picture.

Note to students: Because a wide lens lets you get close to your subject, be careful to avoid inadvertent contact with sensitive aquatic life. Beginning photographers sometimes overlook the fact that things are closer than they appear in the viewfinder.

9. When using a camera housing, a dome port offsets the re­fraction so that the subject doesn't appear closer than ac­tual, maximizing the value of a wide angle lens. This is why it is used widely in underwater photography.

a. Dome ports change the optical focus distance to around 1 metre/3 feet away (this is why they don't make domed face masks).

b. You must choose a lenses that focuses dose enough to use with the dome port.

c. Dome ports are usually only found on housings and camera systems for serious photographers.

B.      Underwater Photography Principles - Submersible Cameras, Housings and Strobes

Learning objectives. After this discussion, you'll be able to answer the following questions:

• What are the advantages and disadvantages of a surface camera in an underwater housing?

• What five features should you consider in selecting an underwater housing?

• What are the advantages and disadvantages of a submersible camera?

• What two features should you consider in selecting a submersible camera?

• What eight features should you consider when purchasing a submersible strobe for underwater photography?

• What particular equipment do you need for underwater macro or close up photography?

You will also be able to:

• Select a camera system that meets your underwater photography needs.

1. If you already own a surface camera, you may elect to buy an underwater housing for that camera. This has advan­tages and disadvantages compared to investing in a sub­mersible camera (discussed next). Advantages:

a. No need to invest in a second system if you already have accessories (wide angle lenses, etc.)

b. Usually a wider variety of lens and accessory choice than with submersible systems

c.     It's easier to spot a leak in most camera housings than in most submersible cameras.

d. Some types of cameras don’t exist in submersible mod­els, which means a housing is the only choice.

Note to instructor: At this writing, there are no submersible digital cameras, but that may change. Stay up to date and inform students about what options they have in this regard.

Disadvantages

e. Housings tend to be bulky compared to submersible cameras, which affects transporting them and swim­ming with them.

f.     For comparable high end systems (serious photogra­phy), housed systems usually cost more than submers­ible camera systems.

g. Setting up and changing film in a housed system usu­ally requires more time and effort than with a submers­ible system.

h. A housed surface camera is less likely to survive a leak than a submersible camera.

2.  Housing features to consider.

a. Material - plastic housings resist corrosion, (with dear plastic) are the easiest to spot a leak, and cost less. Metal housings tend to be more rugged, compact and have a "feel" more like a submersible camera.

b. Film clanging - think about how much effort it takes to change a roll of film or download digital memory, and ask yourself how practical doing so would be in the dive environments you enjoy

c.    Interchangeable lens ports - For interchangeable lens cameras, the available of different lens ports may dictate which lenses you can and cannot use underwater.

d. Mechanical versus electronic controls - Mechanical controls are levers and rods that control the camera. They are simple and reliable, but each is a potential leak point that has o-rings that must be maintained. For cam­eras with electronic control systems, electronic controls can be put in ideal locations and reduce the potential leak points. However, electronic controls are more prone to malfunction than mechanical controls.

e. Strobe compatibility - Be sure the housing will accept the strobe you intend to use, particularly with respect to TTL operation.

3. The alternative to housing a surface camera is using a sub­mersible camera designed for underwater photography.

Advantages

a.     If you don't have a camera system, you can invest in one without the additional expense of a housing.

b. Submersible cameras tend to be compact, making them easier to transport and swim with.

c. Submersible cameras are usually simpler in set up and film changing than a housed camera.

d. Some submersible cameras have ultrawide lenses de­signed specifically for underwater use. Such lenses can­not be designed for use in air (due to optical differences between water and air), and are not available for surface cameras in housings.

e.     Submersible cameras are more likely to survive a leak (though no guarantees).

f.     Submersible snapshot cameras have a slightly higher initial investment, but are as useful surface snapshot cameras.

Disadvantages

g. It's usually difficult to detect a leak in a submersible camera until you open it after the dive.

h. For serious topside photography, submersible cameras are much more limited (accessories & lenses) compared to a conventional SLR.

i.      With only a single exception at this writing, submersible cameras do not have SLR viewing.

4. Submersible camera features to consider

a. Strobe compatibility- most submersible strobes use the Nikonos V TTL strobe connection, but a few don't.

b. Accessories available - make sure you can do what you want with the camera, which is usually affected by the lenses and other accessories available.

5. Submersible strobes - At one time it was common to use standard strobes in a housing, but this isn't common today, even when using a housed camera. There are eight consid­erations when selecting a strobe:

a. TTL automatic or manual (TTL is by far the most popu­lar and easiest to use, and can be set on manual when necessary)

b. Size - larger strobes are more powerful, but bulkier.

c.     Beam angle - your strobe should cover an area as wide as the lens you'll be using (some strobes use a diffuser to accommodate very wide lenses)

d. Power - Usually you want the most powerful strobe you can afford

e. Battery types - Disposable battery strobes cost less to purchase; rechargeable strobes cost less to use if you shoot a lot, plus recycle (time between flashes) is much quicker.

f.     Modeling light - Useful at night or low light, and aids pointing the strobe where you want (some photogra­phers attach a small dive light to the side of the strobe to accomplish the same)

g. Variable power - Different power settings gives you more exposure control, esp. with a very powerful strobe.

h. Slave sensor - Some strobes can be set to fire when they see another strobe go off - useful when using multiple strobes in a large area.

6. Macro photography (extreme dose up) and close up pho­tography require special equipment considerations.

a. Close up lens or extension tubes - Housed cameras usually use a special macro lens for macro photos. Sub­mersible cameras usually use add-on lenses or a tube between the camera and the lens (interchangeable lens cameras) to allow dose up photography

b. TTL strobe - Macro photography requires a lot of light and exposure can be difficult; TTL strobes greatly sim­plify macro photography.

c.     Framer - Aiming and focus are critical when dose up. With non SLR cameras, a framer is a wire frame that shows you the focus distance and what is in the picture.

7. Choosing an underwater photo system - the following lists may you help determine what type system best suits your needs

a. Snapshot, noninterchangeable lens camera (submersible or housed)

1. Comparatively low cost 2. Simple - point'n'shoot 3.          Suitable for snaps of buddies and general scenes 4.       Best in dear water

b. Interchangeable lens cameras

1. More investment in exchange for more flexibility 2.       Many are automatic, but shooting is not as simple. 3. Suitable for a wide range of photo applications -

best for those with an interest in serious photogra­phy

4. Adaptable to wide range of underwater conditions Note to instructor: If appropriate, take a few minutes to identify the type camera system that meets the interests and needs of each student.

Tell students that it's not unusual to start with a casual interest and progress toward a more serious pursuit of photography.

C.      Underwater Photography Principles - Underwater Framing and Focus

Learning objectives. After this discussion, you'll be able to answer the following questions:

• What is parallax error?

• How do you frame a picture to include what you want and exclude what you don't want?

• How do you set the focus on an underwater camera?

1. Framing - different cameras have different ways of telling what's in and out of the picture; these are used the same way above water or underwater.

a. SLRs/comparible digital cameras - Easiest to frame because you're looking through the lens - what you see is what you get.

b. Viewfinder cameras have a window near the lens with a frame showing you the picture. The closer the subject, the more difference there is between what the

viewfinder and what the lens sees. This is called paral­lax error. To correct, look for parallax correction marks in the viewfinder and frame picture with those marks when shooting a close subject.

c. Macrophotography uses a framer - set the frame around the desired picture - frame is just outside the picture area. (more about macro later)

2.    Set the focus underwater just as you do on the surface.

a.  SLRs - focus until picture is sharp.

b. When using a nonSLR (so you can't see through the lens) such as the Nikonos, remember to focus on the ap­parent distance.

c.     With a macrophoto framer: The lens is set for the closest distance when using extension tubes. With Nikonos closeup kit, the lens is set for infinity. The plane of focus matches the plane of the framer.

D.      Underwater Photography Principles - Underwater Exposure Learning objectives. After this discussion, you'll be able to answer the following questions:

• How do you determine the available light exposure underwater?

• How do you set a strobe for TTL automatic exposure underwater? • How do you set a strobe for manual exposure underwater?

• What is 'fill light"?

• How do you set a TTL strobe for fill light exposure underwater?

• How do you set a strobe for manual fill light exposure underwater? • What is "backscatter" and how do you avoid it?

• How do you bracket your exposure underwater? You'll also be able to:

• Set the camera and strobe you'll be using underwater for proper exposure underwater.

1. Available light exposure - determine available light expo­sure underwater just as you would at the surface

a. be careful not to get false reading from white sand bot­tom

b.. be careful not to get a false reading from the surface to­ward the sun

c.  when possible, get dose to your subject for the exposure (this ability to do this may be limited by your camera) 2. TTL strobe exposure - set the strobe underwater the same as you've already learned. Your flash range will be shorter underwater than in air, however. Be sure to check the guide chart on the strobe to be sure your subject is within the range for the ISO and f-stop you select.

3. Manual strobe exposure - same as in air except you must use an underwater exposure scale for determining exposure underwater

a.  It's a good idea to take test pictures and compare your results with the scale - you may find you want slightly more or less exposure.

4. Fill light - Fill light is a secondary light used to fill shad­ows and create a more pleasing picture. Day photography, the sun is usually the main light and your strobe is the fill light. Underwater, the fill also replaces lost color - so most UW photography calls for using a strobe.

a. "Typical" fill light exposure above water is usually set so that it is one or two stops less than the main light exposure. For example, if the ambient light calls for fill, the strobe power may be set so that it would require f8 or 5.6.

b. Underwater, fill light may actually be equal to or some­times greater than main light exposure.

c. Fully automatic snapshot cameras may have fill light ca­pability-5. Setting a TTL strobe for underwater fill light (adjustable camera systems).

Note to instructor: This is by far the most useful and common shooting set up for Nikonos V or modern housed SLR system with a submersible strobe. Be sure your students understand how to set their systems for TTL fill light.

a. Set the camera on manual at the synchronization speed, and the strobe on TTL automatic.

b. Use the camera light meter to find the appropriate f ­stop for the ambient light. Set the aperture for the next higher half to full f-stop (slightly underexposed).

c. Shoot pictures. The TTL automatic will vary the strobe power to provide balanced fill light.

d. For a lighter background - use the aperture indicated by the light meter.

e. For darker fill light - do the same as above, except af­ter setting the camera, turn the ISO dial to an ISO num­ber twice the actual (e.g. if using IS0100, set to ISO 200).

This causes the strobe to use less light for the fill. Note: Some cameras have an exposure compensation dial that you can use instead of changing the ISO number.

f.     For point-n-shoot automatic TTL fill- set both the camera and flash on automatic. This is easy, but there will be variations in relative strength of the ambient and fill light.

6. Setting manual strobe fill light (adjustable camera systems) a. Set the camera on manual at the synchronization speed,. b. Use the camera light meter to find and set the appropriate­

ate f-stop for the ambient light. Close the lens one half to one f-stop from this setting.

c.     Set the strobe so that on the exposure guide, it requires the f-stop you've actually set on the lens. Adjust the strobe power (if available), get closer or fart her from subject, or hold strobe closer or further back from sub­ject as necessary.

d. For a lighter background, set f-stop for ambient light. Set flash power/distance so f-stop on exposure guide calls for the same or next wider f-stop (lower number).

e.     When in doubt, set the lens for the highest f-stop num­ber called for, strobe or ambient light.

7.    Backscatter is strobe light reflected off particles into the camera lens - makes picture look like a snow storm, and can be a problem even in very clear water.

a.     To avoid backscatter: Aim strobe so as to minimize the amount of light from strobe that passes between the camera and subject that could illuminate particles near the lens.

1. Hold/mount strobe away from the camera lens at approximately 45 degrees, on or slightly above cam­era level and aim at subject.

2. With wide beam strobes, it may help to point strobe slightly behind subject to light it with the edge of the flash beam and reduce light passing between camera and subject.

3. With wide beam strobes, you may have the strobe off to the camera side, strobe face even with lens face, so that the beam edge lights the subject.

Note to instructor: It's best to demonstrate this. Show students how to hold and to refer to the PADI Underwater Photographer Manual to get the concept across.

b. This is why it's desirable to have a separate strobe for UW photography.

c. For manual strobes, hold at about same distance from subject as camera is.

d. Strobe arms can hold a strobe remarkable far from the camera. Be careful to avoid bumping sensitive aquatic life with the strobe.

8. Bracketing - shooting the same picture with different ex­posures to assure that one has the optimum exposure.

a. Manual, no strobe - vary shutter speed or f-stop to shoot photo at metered exposure, one speed/ stop brighter, and one speed/stop darker than metered.

b. Manual, with strobe - vary f-stop - shutter speed must stay same for synchronization

c. Automatic camera/ strobe systems - Vary exposure compensation dial (if so equipped - see camera manual). If no compensation dial, use ISO setting: Shoot one picture at actual ISO number, one at half ISO num­ber and one at twice ISO number

d. May not be possible to bracket with some fully auto­mated snapshot cameras.

e. Manual with strobe, bracketing with strobe distance (used in macro photography and to bracket fill light without changing ambient light) - determine exposure based on strobe to subject distance; shoot one picture at that distance, one with strobe moved in approximately 1/4 the distance, and one moved out approximately 1/3 the distance.

Note to Instructor: At this point, give students a chance to work with their camera systems in groups of two or three and become familiar with ways to set their equipment for strobe photography. Make up sample problems in which you give subject-camera-strobe distances and ISO, and have students set up their equipment accordingly. Before moving on, make sure students can demonstrate how to set their systems, including fill light and bracketing.

E.    Underwater Photography Principles - Composition Learning objectives. After this discussion, you'll be able to answer the following questions:

• What is "composition"?

• What are 'foreground," "background," "negative space" and "separation,„?

• What are the six basic elements of composition?

• What is the most useful and common shooting angle underwater, and why?

• How do you hold a strobe for front lighting, top lighting, back lighting and side lighting, and when would you use each?

1.    Composition is the arrangement of elements in a picture with regard to positions, colors, lines and patterns, so as to create a pleasing picture.

2.    Four concepts relate to composition.

a. Foreground is the area in the picture between you and the subject.

b. Background is the area in the picture behind the subject. c.     Negative space is an area in the photo that has nothing that draws attention - it may be empty space, or an area of background that's repeated sufficiently to be ig­nored by the viewer

d. Separation is the ability to make the subject stand apart from the foreground and background, giving the photo depth.

3.    Six basic elements of composition.

a. Image completeness - the viewer needs to feel like the subject has all the needed elements; avoid unnatural cropping that makes the subject seem incomplete, such as cropping a diver's feet out at the ankles.

b. Noncompetitive foreground - the foreground shouldn't distract and compete for attention with the subject.

c. Noncompetitive background - likewise, the back­ground shouldn't distract and compete for attention with the subject.

d. Subject direction - generally, place subject that can move, has a face, or moves so it faces into the picture and toward the camera (even obliquely).

Note: Shots that are a composition of many elements, such as an overall shot of a reef, may not have distinct single subject, so foreground, background and direction may not be an issue.

e. Subject position - best positioning is subjective and de­pends upon the picture, but a good rule of thumbs is to mentally divide the frame into thirds horizontally and vertically, and center the subject on one of these imagi­nary lines. Don't forget that many underwater subjects work better with a vertical format - turn the camera on its side.

f.     Complementary colors - as a rule of thumb, contrast­ing colors give pictures more "snap," though mono­chromatic (predominantly one color) photos - particularly silhouettes - can be quite dramatic.

4. The most useful shooting angle for most underwater photog­raphy is from a low angle, toward the surface at an angle. a. separates the subject from the foreground

b. creates desirable blue/green negative space behind/ around subject

c.    gives animals and divers more apparent stature and sig­nificance

d. minimizes distracting foreground and background 5. Strobe angles affect your composition.

a. Front lighting - strobe approximately 45 degrees from subject and camera, at or slightly above camera level as already discussed, simulates sunlight and is your all round fill-light position.

b. Top lighting - strobe directly over subject, aimed away from camera to prevent light flare in lens; good when it's hard to separate subject from background. Tends to cre­ate foreground shadows.

c.    Back lighting - strobe on far side of subject facing cam­era; creates silhouette; tends to be dramatic, but use spar­ingly. Subject must completely mask strobe, or light will flare into lens.

d. Side lighting - strobe approximately 90 degrees directly off of subject, aimed slightly away from camera to pre­vent light flare in lenses; shows texture and creates dra­matic shadows.

Note to instructor: Make sure students understand composition principles before continuing.

F.    Diving with a Camera

Learning objectives. After this discussion, you'll be able to answer the following questions:

• How should you carry your camera system to be prepared for an emergency?

• What are two safety guidelines regarding air checks and the buddy system when taking underwater photos?

• How should you enter and exit the water with an underwater camera system?

• How should you adjust your buoyancy for underwater photography? • What's the ideal technique for a steady shot underwater?

• How can underwater photographers avoid damaging the underwater environment?

• What should you do if you flood your underwater camera or strobe?

1. Safety

a. You should always be able to immediately discard your camera in an emergency -- in most cases, you can re­cover it later. If not, even the most expensive camera

isn't worth risking your health or life.

b. The preferred method is to simply hold the system in one hand.

c.     A loose wrist strap is acceptable, provided you can re­move it without hesitation if need be.

d. Cameras may be clipped to the BCD.

e.     Don't neglect checking your air. Make a point of check­ing more often than usual when taking pictures.

f.     Maintain buddy contact. Teams of photographer model work well. If diving with another photographer, check on each other after each shot. Use some technique that assures buddy contact.

2.    Entries and Exits

a. Boat diving or diving from a platform

1.    Don't giant stride or roll into water holding camera; impact can jar seals and cause a flood.

2.    Have someone hand you the system, put it on the swim step where you can reach it, or lower on a line to retrieve after you enter (be careful not to lower into reef or bottom, and don't use in rough condi­tions because this can damage the camera by jerking it up and down). Reverse for exits. Keep your hands free for handling entries and exits.

3. Show anyone who will handle the system exactly how to hold it, and where to put it before and after the dive.

b. Beach diving

l.     Avoid strong surf -- even if you care handle it, the camera may not and conditions are likely to be poor, for photography.

2.    A wrist lanyard may help avoid loss in mild surf.

3.    Do not set your camera system down in the sand. The O-rings will pick up sand, which can damage seals.

c.     It's usually best to have the lens/port cover on during entries and exits.

3. Buoyancy control and underwater photography

a. camera systems usually add weight and drag - com­pensate by adding air to your BCD - don't dive under weighted because you may be too buoyant if you lose your camera

b. swim slowly and remember to check your air more fre­quently because you'll tend to use it faster due to the drag

4. The ideal technique is to be neutrally buoyant; hold the camera firmly and press the shutter button slowly.

a.     Do not let your feet damage sensitive organisms; don't steady yourself on sensitive reef.

b. some photographers like to be slightly overweighed (1­2 kg/2-5 lbs) so they can steady themselves on insensi­tive bottom - use this technique sparingly

5. To avoid harming the environment

a. be careful about your hands, feet and the camera when shooting near sensitive aquatic life

b. remember that no picture is worth hurting the environ­ment to get

c.     be cautious about moving organisms to get a "more pleasing" picture - may harm the organism, and may put it in an unnatural setting

d. don't allow photo equipment to dangle and drag on the reef

e.     when in doubt, be conservative and leave the organism in question alone

6. If you flood your camera, strobe or housing

a. Surface immediately, but do not exceed 18 metres/60 feet per minute or your computer's ascent rate - no camera is more important than your safety.

b. With a housing, turn so accumulating water stays away from camera - usually lens port down.

c.     Hand up to someone on boat. With a housing, advise to not change housing position (so camera doesn't get wet).

d. A surface camera will usually be ruined by even mini­mal contact with water. A flooded submersible camera or strobe may survive. Consult the manufacturer litera­ture about what to do after flooding, and return the equipment to the manufacturer for service. Do not use a housing that flooded again until you have determined the cause of the leak.

G.    Set Up and Maintenance for Underwater Photo Systems Learning objectives. After this discussion, you'll be able to answer the following questions:

• What tools and materials do you need for underwater photo system maintenance?

• How should you care for a camera system after a dive? You'll also be able to:

• Clean and lubricate an o-ring using the five step procedure. • Perform a predive battery and electronics check of a camera. • Perform a predive lens check.

• Perform a predive strobe check.

• Set up the camera system you'll be using for the first underwater photography dive.

Note to instructor: The following should be a hands-on session in which students practice cleaning and lubricating o-rings and set up their equipment. Be sure to have the recommended tools and materials on hand. Students using some equipment, such as macro equipment, may need additional guidance in setting up their gear.

1. Although underwater systems can flood due to defect, the vast majority of floods are caused by human error. Proper maintenance avoids expensive floods.

2. You'll want these suggested tools and items for routine un­derwater photo system care.

a. flat head and Phillips head screwdrivers, regular and jewelers sizes

b. pointed nose pliers c.  adjustable wrench

d. small allen wrench set

e.  tooth brush (for cleaning threads) f.     lint free cloth

g. cotton swabs h.         lens cleaner i.    lens cleaning tissue

j.   silicone grease

k. electrical contact cleaner

1.  spares of all O-rings

Note: Avoid spray silicone. It can damage the chemical structure of some plastics, and has little use in underwater photography in any case.

3. Proper O-ring maintenance is the most important step in preventing a flood.

a. Remove O-ring by pinching with fingers or credit card corner (avoid sharp /hard objects, which may damage o-ring and o-ring groove).

b. Wipe O-ring clean with soft, lint-free cloth; avoid stretching O-ring while cleaning. Gently remove all dirt/ grit. Inspect for nicks or cracks by bending gently; replace if damaged.

Note: Never use a damaged or questionable O-ring because there is a substantial possibility for a leak.

c.     Apply a thin coat of silicone grease to O-ring and dis­tribute evenly. O-ring should look wet, but not exces­sively greasy (grease allows O-ring to slide in place in groove; excess grease doesn't increase watertightness, but attracts dirt and threatens watertightness)

d. Clean O-ring groove with cotton swab or cloth; inspect for and remove all dirt/hair etc.

e.     Gently replace O-ring.

4. Before diving, check the camera battery and electronics

a. Remove batteries and check with battery tester; replace if weak

b. Wipe battery contacts with clean cloth or pencil eraser and replace

c. Turn on camera and check that all systems operate. [Help students based on their individual cameras.] 5.   Before diving, check the lens.

a. Check front and rear (removable lenses) and clean with lens tissue and cleaner if necessary.

b. Check focus and aperture settings if they cannot be reset underwater. [Help students based on their individual cameras.]

6. Before diving, check the strobe.

a. Put batteries in strobe or charge strobe batteries.

b. Connect strobe to camera and/or housing - no film in camera.

c.    Turn on strobe, wait for ready light. Test fire aiming camera and strobe at a close subject and shooting. TTL confirmation light (be sure camera lens cap is off) should come on.

7. Camera systems assembly - here are the generally recom­mended steps for assembling an underwater photo system. a. Remove, clean and replace O-rings of housing/sub­mersible camera and strobe

b. Check camera battery, electronics and lens. c.       Check strobe function.

d. Load camera with film (if appropriate)

e. Assemble and close submersible camera, or install cam­era in housing and close.

f. Assemble strobe, dose battery compartment and attach cord to strobe and camera/housing.

g. Assemble brackets and remaining system components. 8.     Post dive care is important for long term reliability of your equipment

a. After diving, submerge camera system in fresh water and gently agitate back and forth for at least one minute. This flushes out trapped salt and dirt. Ideally, soak another 30 minutes.

•      Important: Do not let your system dry unrinsed. It is better to keep it wet in salt water until you can rinse if necessary.

b. Gently dry.

c.    Disassemble. If diving again, inspect and dean O-rings as necessary. If not diving, remove O-rings and store in plastic bags.

d. Unload film or download images. Reload film if diving again.

e. Remove strobe batteries for storage, or replace/recharge if diving again.

f.     Clean/lubricate accessories as necessary (strobe arms etc.) for storage.

H.      Underwater Photo Situation - Macro Photography

Note: The macro photo and still life topics are included before Underwater Photography Dive I because those are the two option for that dive. If all of your students will be doing macro or still life, you may give the other topic as part of Presentation 2.

Also, note that the photo situation presentations may repeat previously covered material to bring it into context/

Learning objectives. After this discussion, you'll be able to answer the following questions:

• What are close up and macro photography?

• How do you determine the proper focus when taking close up and macro photos?

• What is the most practical way to determine the proper exposure when taking close up and macro photos?

• How do you bracket when taking macro photos?

• What composition considerations apply to macro photography?

1. Close up photography is photos of areas approximately 20 cm/8 in by 20 cm/12 in. Macro photography is extreme close up photography. The image is 1/3 1ife size or larger on the slide or negative, or relative to the computer chip. a. Submersible cameras usually employ a close up kit - add-on lenses that attach to the front of the lens - for close up photography. Extension tubes between camera and lens can also be used, for macro photography, usu­ally in set of 1:3,1:2, and 1:1 (the ratio of subject size to image size on the film or negative; 1:1 is the closest). Close up and macro photo setups use framers for focus. b. Housed cameras and submersible SLRs usually employ a macro lens or close up adapters on a normal (50 mm) lens.

2. Focus - It's easy to determine focus because the framers mark the focus distance. However, the depth of field is very narrow with macro, and keeping the entire subject within it can be a challenge.

a. Using framers - focus by putting the subject in the plane defined by framers; with relatively little depth to or away from camera. There's no need to look through the camera viewfinder. Consult manufacturer instruc­tions, but with most dose up kits (add-on lenses), set the lens distance at infinity for correct focus. With most extension tubes, set the lens distance for the closest set­ting.

b. Housed cameras/ submersible SLRs -focus through the lens as usual. It may be easier to preset focus and move camera in and out slightly than to try to adjust lens.

3. The most practical way to set exposure is to use TTL strobe exposure. For close up photography, set the focus for infinity (or as directed by the lens mfg) and the f-stop for the smallest possible aperture in the TTL range(usually f22). For macro photography:

a.     Set lens at smallest aperture to maximize depth of focus. b. Hold, or adjust bracket so strobe is above camera (be careful not to put where framer will cast a shadow in the picture). For 1:3 extension tube, put strobe approx. 23 cm/9 in. from subject. For 1:2,18 cm/7 in. For 1:1,10 cm/4 in.

c. TTL will automatically control strobe output; bracket by adjusting the compensation dial or changing the ISO setting.

4. Close up and macro composition and shooting tips

a. Separation is important - look for contrasting colors between subject and background to maximize separation. b. A low angle is desirable, but less significant and less important than in other types of UW photography.

c. Try to make the subject recognizable, especially when making macro photos of a portion of something (e.g. a close up of a fish face is recognizable; a fin and scales may not be).

d. Experiment with flash angle for image depth and drama. e. When using framers, you're looking down from above, seeing an angle different from what the camera sees. Take this into account when composing.

I.     Underwater Photo Situation - Still Life

Learning objectives. After this discussion, you'll be able to answer the following questions:

• What is a "still life"?

• How do you set focus for still lifes?

• How do you bracket focus for still lifes?

• How do you set exposure and bracket exposure for still lifer?

• What composition considerations apply to still life photography?

1.    A "still life" is a photo of a nonmoving subject, usually of moderate size, such as a” traditional" still life of a bowl of fruit. Underwater, a still life may be a coral head, a sponge, a group of sea urchins, the underside of a water lily, etc. Still lifes make good subjects for studying exposure and composition because you can try many different techniques and compare them (fish don't usually stay still long enough).

2.  You set focus for still lifes as you've already learned.

a.    If there's not enough depth of field to make the entire subject sharp, you may want to bracket your focus.

b.    Bracket by setting the distance for the center. Shoot one there, then pull back so the front is in focus and shoot, and then push forward so the rear is in focus and shoot.

3.  Set your exposure and bracket it as you've already learned. 4. Composition considerations:

a. Most still lifes benefit from low angle shooting.

b. Experiment with strobe placement - side lighting can be quite effective.

c.    Try a silouette: no strobe, low angle with subject be­tween camera and surface toward sun. Set exposure for brightly lit water behind subject (automatic cameras will do this automatically). Focus on subject. In shallow, clear water, don't shoot directly into sun - shoot with sun off to one side.

d. Colors and negative space are important for a successful still life.

VI. Underwater Photo Dive 1

A.   General Open-Water Tips and Considerations

1. Under your guidance, have students prepare their own photo systems for the dives. (This may have already been done as part of the knowledge developmet presentations)

2.    It helps to have qualified personnel assist with in-water training. Assistants can help students prepare their photo systems and watch what they do underwater.

3. On each dive, provide students with a picture-taking "as­signment" - a short list of subjects to take pictures of (per­haps local aquatic organisms) based on the dive objectives. Describe or show examples of pictures to them you would like them to take. However, don't overload students with large assignments. Have them concentrate on just a few types of pictures.

4. To reduce student frustration and increase their chance of success, it is recommended that Underwater Photo Dive 1 be a macrophotography dive (with equipment such as a: Nikonos V, 1:3 extension tube, and TTL strobe). Macropho­tography is the easiest form of underwater photography for the beginning camera enthusiast. The idea is to get stu­dents off to a good start by setting them up for success with their first roll of film.

5. Remind students of their responsibility to the environment. 6.  As soon as possible after a dive, review each student's pic­tures individually. Provide the one or two most construc­tive suggestions for improvement, but don't point out ev­ery little flaw. Remember, the student may be very pleased with the results and too much critique may turn the "suc­cess" into a perceived "failure." New photographers can re­member every nuance, and will make better progress by concentrating on only a couple areas at a time.

7. Keep students in as shallow water as possible. This allows them time to complete their assignment and provides the ambient light needed for good pictures.

8. Remind students never hold their breath when shooting, but to exhale slowly and steadily.

B.      Dive objectives.

Note to instructor: One of the challenges with underwater photography courses is that students entering the course may have different types of camera equipment. To offset this, objectives for each dive may be varied to match the equipment used by students. From the following sets of objectives, choose the set that best suits each individual. For example, a student using a Nikonos camera and strobe should have a different set of dive objectives from a student using a camera that does not have as many accessories, allow the lens to be changed or have a strobe attached. This means that different students may be taking different kinds of pictures. 1. Objectives for students using cameras with macro and strobe photography capability (i.e., Nikonos cameras and some housed cameras).

By the end of this Underwater Photography Dive 1, the student should be able to:

• Prepare and assemble an underwater camera system for macrophotography.

• Set the shutter speed, aperture and focus appropriately for macrophotography.

• Frame and expose a complete roll of film, taking underwater macro­pictures.

• Bracket the exposure of each type of photo taken underwater by varying either strobe-to-subject distance or on automatic cameras, changing the ISO number.

• Compose each macro-picture applying basic considerations such as flash angle, camera angle, subject position, image completeness, foreground, background and complementary colors.

2. Objectives for those students who don't own macro accesories and/or strobes for their cameras,

OR

Those students using cameras without macro and/or strobe photography capability.

Objectives for Dive 1- Taking pictures of aquatic still-life (i.e., starfish, resting fish, plants, attached animals, etc.).

By the end of this Underwater Photography Dive 1, the student should be able to:

• Prepare and assemble an underwater camera system.

• Set the shutter speed and aperture (if appropriate) for an exposure based on manual meter readings, general film exposure information or automatic programming information.

• Focus the camera by varying subject-to-camera distance or focus knob setting.

• Frame and expose a complete roll of film, taking underwater still-life pictures.

• Bracket the exposure of each type of photo taken underwater by varying either shutter speeds or f/stops (if appropriate).

• Compose each still life applying basic considerations such as flash angle, camera angle, subject position, image completeness, foreground, background and complementary colors.

C.      UW Photo Dive 1. 1. Briefing. a.   Evaluation of conditions.

b.    Facilities at dive site.

c.     Entry technique to be used - location. d. Exit technique to be used - location.

e. Bottom composition and topography around the train­ing site.

f.     Depth range on the bottom.

g. Ending tank pressure - when to terminate the dive. h. Interesting and helpful facts about the dive site. i.          Special communication underwater and topside.

j.     What to do if an emergency arises.

k. What to do if separation from buddy occurs. 1.       Buddy assignments.

m. Overview of photography objectives. 2. Predive procedures.

a. Prepare personal equipment.

b. Calculate no-decompression limits. c.       Don personal dive equipment.

d. Predive safety check. e. Entry.

3. Students dive in buddy teams and complete assigned pho­tography, within limits of air, no decompression time, etc. 4. Post-dive procedures.

a. Exit.

b. Check in with the divemaster (if appropriate). c. Remove and stow equipment

d. Review dive tables for PG.

e. Attend to UW photo equipment (rinse and stow appro­priately).

5. Debriefing.

a.  Identify positives in student performance.

b. Identify negatives in student performance and how to avoid them in future dives.

c.     Review objectives; have students explain what they ac­complished and what they learned.

d. Review how student technique affected the environ­ment - negatively or not at all.

6. Log dive -- instructor signs log. VII. Presentation 3

Note to instructor: If necessary for logistics, Presentation 2 may be combined with Presentation 1 and presented prior to Underwater Photography Dive 1. However, all of Presentation 1 should be presented prior to that dive.

A.      Underwater Photo Principles - Selecting Film

Note to instructor: The following discussion doesn't apply to digital cameras, but should be covered even if all students are using a digital camera because typically, most will end up using film cameras at least occasionally.

Learning objectives. After this discussion, you'll be able to answer the following questions:

• What is meant by a "slow" film, and what are the advantages and disadvantages of using one?

• What is meant by a 'fast" film, and what are the advantages and disadvantages of using one?

• What are the advantages and disadvantages of using slide film? • What are the advantages and disadvantages of using print film? 1.          "Slow" versus "fast" film

a.     Films with an ISO of 100 or lower are considered "slow" films.

b. Films with an ISO of 200 or higher are considered "fast" films.

2. Advantages and disadvantages of slow films

a.     Slow films have finer grain for better detail, especially when enlarged.

b. Slow films are easier to work with in bright conditions. c.     Slow films have narrow depth of field and may be diffi­cult to work with in dim conditions.

3. Advantages and disadvantages of fast films

a.    Fast films provide more depth of field and versatility for low or marginal light conditions.

b. Fast films may be "too fast" in bright conditions.

c.    Fast films have less quality than slow films, and don't enlarge as well.

4.    You can choose to shoot color print film, or color slides. 5. Advantages and disadvantages of slide film

a.  Slide film costs more to buy, but less to process

b. Slides have narrow exposure latitude (less room for er­ror), so it helps you learn proper exposure

c. Slides have better color saturation and contrast than prints.

d. Regular size prints from slides cost more than prints for negatives (enlargements are generally the same).

e. Most serious underwater photographers shoot slides. 6. Advantages and disadvantages of print film

a.  Print film costs less to buy but more to process.

b. Prints have wide exposure latitude, making acceptable pictures likely even when shooting isn't right on.

c.    Prints are easier to show and share (no projector needed).

d. Regular size prints cost less than from slides.

e. Snapshooters and casual photographers usually prefer prints.

B.    Underwater Photo Principles - Using Multiple Strobes Learning objectives. After this discussion, you'll be able to answer the following questions:

• Why would you use multiple strobes?

• What are the two ways to trigger more than one strobe? • What are meant by the "main" light and the "fill" light? • What is the basic way you would position two strobes? • How do you set the exposure for two strobes?

1. Multiple strobes allow you to create more natural fill light, especially when shooting very close with slow film, such as

a fish portraits. Multiple strobes may also be used to cover a wide area with a very wide lens.

2. Triggering multiple strobes

a. Strobe cord - special cords with TTL connections allow you to connect and control two or more strobes to your camera.

b. Slave - Only one strobe is connect to the camera; a slave sensor in the other strobe(s) detects the first flash and fires the slave strobe.

3. Basic positioning for two strobes - unequal power a. TTL

1. The main strobe is the stronger strobe and stimulates sunlight. It is positioned much like a single strobe - off camera and above the subject about 45 degrees.

2. The fill strobe balances the main with weaker light. It is position on the opposite side of the subject from the main, and is lower.

3. The TTL exposure will be based primarily on the main strobe. The fill strobe should have approxi­mately half the power (or less) of the main, (by being smaller, adjustable on TLL, using a diffuser, or distance). Depending on the system, the TTL system will automatically control the output of either or both strobes (consult the manufacturer instructions). b. Manual

1. The main strobe is the stronger strobe and stimulates sunlight. It is positioned much like a single strobe - off camera and above the subject about 45 degrees.

2. The fill strobe balances the main with weaker light. It is position on the opposite side of the subject from the main, and is lower.

3. The exposure is always set based on the main strobe.Set camera for main strobe as you would if it were the only light source as already discussed. If strobes have different power, use the stronger as the main strobe.

4.    The fill strobe is set to provide about 1/2 or less light than the main strobe.

5. For slave systems - set the main strobe on full power and fill strobe on 1/2 or lower power, OR, move fill strobe 1/3 or more further back from the subject.

4. Basic position for two strobes - equal power.

a.     Set strobes at same level, on either side of camera at camera level, aimed straight ahead. In silty conditions, may be aimed slightly away from camera to reduce back scatter.

b. Set strobes on TTL, and set the camera as you would for balancing ambient light with a single strobe fill light. This will provide wide even fill coverage - especially useful for fill light with very wide lenses.

C.    Underwater Photo Situation - Fish and Wildlife Portraits Learning objectives. After this discussion, you'll be able to answer the following questions:

• What equipment do you use for fish and wildlife portraits?

• What composition considerations apply to fish and wildlife portraits? 1. You can take fish and wildlife portraits with most camera systems. Systems that let you focus with in 30 centimeters/ 1 foot are ideal for fish pictures.

2. Compositional considerations

a. Try to shoot animals from a low angle to give them sig­nificance and separation.

b. Eye to eye contact with the subject makes the photo more personal.

c. The subject should be headed toward camera (even ob­liquely)

d. Showing natural behavior (feeding, mating, defending territory) adds significantly to shot.

3. The challenge in fish/wildlife portraits is patience - move slowly and fluidly so as to not scare the subject, anticipate where the animal will go. Don't chase or distress your subject. D.            Underwater Photo Situation - Diver Photos

Learning objectives. After this discussion, you'll be able to answer the following questions:

• What equipment do you need for diver photos?

• How should you coach your model for photographs?

1. You can take diver photos with most camera systems. The ideal is a system with a moderately wide to very wide angle lens so you can be within 1 metre/3 feet and still fit the whole diver in the picture.

2. Unlike wildlife, diver subjects will cooperate. Encourage your models to:

a. Wear streamlined attractive equipment (photos better and doesn't damage environment).

b. Swim slowly with feet pointed back (makes divers look fluid)

c.     Exhale slowly (provides nice gentle bubble trails instead of massive clouds)

3. Compositional considerations a. Low angle very important b. Strobe should be on opposite side from diver's ap­proach to fill mask.

c.     Shots of divers doing something rather than just swim­ming add interest

d. Colorful dive equipment contrasts better than black and provides separation.

E.      Underwater Photo Situation - Close/Wide Photos Learning objectives. After this discussion, you'll be able to answer the following questions:

• What is a "close/wide" photo?

• In a close/wide photo, what is the main subject and the secondary subject?

• What equipment do you need for a close/wide photo? • What is the angle used for a close/wide photo?

• How do you set up and expose for a close/wide photo?

1. Close/wide photos are some of the most dramatic under­water photos. They consist of a very dose still life subject (the main subject) properly exposed by strobe and balanced to the sun or surface behind the subject, often with the silouette of a diver or boat (the secondary subject).

2. Close/ wide photos require a strobe and an extremely wide lens that focuses dose - ideally to 30 cm/1 ft. In 35 mm cameras, the focal length must be 24mm or wider, with 20 mm and a dome port (housed systems) preferred. You can­not take close/wide photos with snapshot cameras.

3. Close /wide shots are taken nearly straight up -an extremely low angle, though the result often looks like a normal angle. The composition is vertical (camera turned on side).

4.  Setting up a close/wide shot.

a.     Find a main subject that at a distance of less than 60 cm/2 ft, fills approximately 1/4 to 1/3 of the bottom of the frame.

b. Get well below subject and compose shot so that sur­face/sun are behind it.

c.     Set f-stop to f11 or higher (smaller aperture) based on exposure from sun/surface.

d. Aim strobe at main subject from distance that obtains correct exposure for f-stop (TTL greatly simplifies this). e. Direct secondary subject (silhouette diver) into desired spot (if using).

VIII. Underwater Photo Dive 2 A.  Dive objectives.

Objectives for students using cameras with macro and strobe photography capability (i.e., Nikonos cameras and some housed cameras) - Balancing strobe and natural light.

By the end of this dive, the student should be able to:

• Prepare and assemble an underwater camera system for strobe photography. (Recommended: a lens with a focal length of 35mm or less.)

• Set the shutter speed appropriately for strobe synchronization.

• Set aperture based on ambient light - read with manual meter and automatic camera readings.

• Manipulate strobe power or strobe-to-subject distance such that a balance with the ambient light is achieved.

• Focus, frame and expose a complete roll of film, taking underwater balanced-light pictures.

• Bracket the exposure of each type of photo taken underwater by varying either strobe-to-subject distances or f/stops.

• Compose each picture applying basic considerations such as flash angle, camera angle, subject position, image completeness, foreground, background and complementary colors.

Objectives for those students who don't own macro accessories and/or strobes for their cameras,

OR

Those students using cameras without macro and/or strobe photography capability - taking pictures of a dive buddy. By the end of this dive, the student should be able to:

• Prepare and assemble an underwater camera system.

• Set the shutter speed and aperture (if appropriate) for an exposure based on manual meter readings, general film exposure information or automatic programming information.

• Focus the camera by varying subject-to-camera distance or focus knob setting.

• Frame and expose a complete roll of film, taking diver pictures. • Bracket the exposure of each type of photo taken underwater by varying either shutter speeds or f/stops (if appropriate).

• Compose each diver photo applying basic considerations such as flash angle, camera angle, subject position, image completeness, foreground, background and complementary colors.

C.      UW Photo Dive 2. 1. Briefing.

a. Evaluation of conditions. b.     Facilities at dive site.

c. Entry technique to be used - location. d. Exit technique to be used - location.

e. Bottom composition and topography around the train­ing site.

f.   Depth range on the bottom.

g. Ending tank pressure - when to terminate the dive. h. Interesting and helpful facts about the dive site. i.    Special communication underwater and topside.

j.   What to do if an emergency arises.

k. What to do if separation from buddy occurs. 1.     Buddy assignments.

m. Overview of photography objectives.

2. Predive procedures.

a. Prepare personal equipment.

b. Calculate no-decompression limits. c. Don personal dive equipment.

d. Predive safety check. e. Entry.

3. Students dive in buddy teams and complete assigned pho­tography, within limits of air, no decompression time, etc. 4. Post-dive procedures.

a. Exit.

b. Check in with the divemaster (if appropriate). c. Remove and stow equipment

d. Review dive tables for PG.

e. Attend to UW photo equipment (rinse and stow appro­priately; disassemble and store if appropriate).

5. Debriefing.

a. Identify positives in student performance.

b. Identify negatives in student performance and how to avoid them in future dives.

c.      Review objectives; have students explain what they ac­complished and what they learned.

d. Review how student technique affected the environ­ment - negatively or not at all.

6. Log dive - instructor signs log. IX. Course Conclusion

A.        Meet with each student individually and discuss the results of the dives. Give a brief critique of photos, based on the results, and based on what you learned about what the student wants out of photography (e.g. A snapshooter doesn't need a dis­course on improving dose/wide shots).

B.         Encourage students to continue their photography and educa­tion. One way is to offer to continue to critique their photos, and welcome them to take pictures during other appropriate specialty training dives (not feasible in all specialities and train­ing dives) such as Underwater Naturalist or Boat Diver.

C.        It's recommended that you hold a social event (gathering, party, dinner, part of dive club meeting) with the class. Encour-

age everyone to share pictures, and invite others to spread the excitement.

D.    Issue wall certificates, chevrons and complete any remaining paperwork (PICs).

Appendix

Optional Confined Water and Open Water Sessions Note to Instructor: Optional sessions are not required, but you may

wish to include them based on logistics and student interests and needs. Because these are optional sessions, there are no learning objectives. Instead, they suggest goals and activities these sessions, but you aren't limited to these goals and activities if student needs and interests suggest others.

I.       Optional Confined Water Session

A.      This session is particularly useful for students with little or no experience with photography prior to entering the course.

B.      The confined water session fits well after Presentation 2 and be­fore Underwater Photo Dive 1.

C.    Suggested goals and activities

1. Equipment set up. Have students completely prepare their camera systems for diving under your supervision.

2. Shooting practice. Have students practice taking pictures in the manner they'll use during the Underwater Photo Dive(s). It helps to have colored objects, such as plastic toys, for students practice shooting. They can also take pictures of each other.

3. Buoyancy and avoiding damaging aquatic life practice. Have students practice steadying themselves and shooting without touching the bottom. After they show proficiency,

have them practice with their feet near pool wall, ladder, etc. without touching the bottom or the nearby object. 4. Equipment tear down and maintenance. Have students rinse, disassemble and store their camera systems under your supervision. It's suggested that you have them do this as though there were diving in salt water, even if the ses­sion was held in clean fresh water.

D. Debriefing

1.    Identify positives of student performance and relate to coming Underwater Photo Dives.

2.    Identify negatives of student performance and relate to coming Underwater Photo Dives.

3.    Review the learning goals you established for the session and have students explain what they learned and accom­plished.

E.       For maximum benefit from the session, meet with each student individually and go critique the photos taken during the ses­sion. This helps students avoid mistakes when they make the Underwater Photo Dives.

11. Optional Underwater Photo Dives

A.      Extra dives are especially suited for enthusiastic students who want to practice additional shooting situations, and for stu­dents who met the performance objectives of the first two

dives, but whom you feel may improve significantly with addi­tional practice.

B.      Optional dives generally follow Underwater Photo Dives 1 and 2. You may at your discretion put an optional dive(s) between 1 and 2, but this dive(s) do not replace Underwater Photo Dive 2, which has specific learning objectives that must be mastered.

C.      Follow the same predive and post dive procedures as in Under­water Photo Dives 1 and 2.

D.      Suggest goals and activities. Some or all of these may be appro­priate, depending upon the student.

1.    Practice new shooting situations not covered in Dives 1 and 2. Have students practice close-wide photos, taking pictures of people, using multiple strobes, etc., equipment allowing.

If this is the goal, the optional dive should follow Dives 1, 2 and Presentation 3.

2. Extended practice to show benefit of experience. Have stu­dents repeat the type shooting (macro, fill, divers, etc.) from a previous dive, but applying what they learned from your critique.

3. Compositional practice. This is appropriate for students who have mastered the technical aspects - focus, expo­sure, but who want to learn to think more creatively. As­sign one subject, ideally something common and unremark­able, and have the student take an entire roll/memory ca­pacity of it. Tell the student to make each picture create a

different impression of the subject by using many different angles, compositions and lighting techniques.

4. Photographer perspectives. This illustrates how different people see each the same subject. Assign all students to take pictures of the same thing, such as a common fish or forma­tion, among their other subjects on the dive. After the dive, compare the different results they produced.

E. Debriefing

1. Identify positives of student performance and relate to coming Underwater Photo Dives.

2. Identify negatives of student performance and relate to coming Underwater Photo Dives.

3. Review the learning goals you established for the session and have students explain what they learned and accom­plished.

F.    As with Underwater Photo Dives 1 and 2, it's recommended that you meet with students individually to critique their pic­tures and help them improve.

G.   Log dive - instructor signs log.

 

 

• What compositional considerations apply to diver photography?